Schools of Criminology

​​Criminologists often draw from multiple schools of thought to develop a comprehensive understanding of crime and criminal behaviour. Over time, different scholars and researchers have developed various schools of criminology, each with its unique theories and perspectives on the causes and explanations of crime. 

Criminology, as a field of study, encompasses various theories and approaches that seek to understand the nature of crime, its causes, and its impact on society. In India, criminology has gained significant attention in recent years, with a growing focus on addressing crime and improving the criminal justice system. 

One way to approach the study of criminology is through different schools of thought, which offer unique perspectives on crime and its management. Let’s look at the schools of criminology.

Definition of Schools of Criminology

Schools of criminology are different theoretical perspectives or approaches that seek to understand the causes, dynamics, and patterns of crime and criminal behaviour. These schools of criminology offer varying explanations and solutions for understanding and addressing crime, based on their unique perspectives and assumptions.

Pre-Classical School

The Pre-Classical School of Criminology is rooted in ancient Indian texts and scriptures that contain principles of justice and punishment. This school focuses on the concept of dharma, which refers to the moral and ethical duties of individuals towards society, and the idea of karma, which highlights the belief in the consequences of one’s actions. 

This is one of the schools of criminology that emphasises the role of religion, customs, and traditions in shaping the social control mechanisms and maintaining law and order in society.

Key Concepts

Dharma: The concept of dharma is central to the Pre-Classical School of criminology. It refers to the moral and ethical duties that individuals have towards society and highlights the importance of adhering to social norms and customs.

Karma: The concept of karma emphasises the belief in the consequences of one’s actions, both in the present life and in future lives. It underscores the idea of accountability and the notion that individuals are responsible for their actions and their consequences.

Relevant Provisions

Manusmriti: Manusmriti, an ancient Indian text, is considered one of the important sources of principles of justice and punishment in the Pre-Classical School of criminology. It contains provisions related to social norms, customs, and punishments for various crimes, reflecting the emphasis on dharma and karma.

Contribution

The Pre-Classical School of Criminology has contributed to the understanding of crime and punishment in ancient Indian society. It highlights the significance of social norms, customs, and ethical responsibilities in maintaining law and order. 

While not directly influencing contemporary criminology in India, the concepts of dharma and karma continue to shape cultural and religious beliefs related to crime and justice.

Classical School of Criminology

The classical school of criminology is one of the oldest and most influential schools of thought in the field of criminology. It emerged during the Enlightenment period in the 18th century and is based on the idea that individuals are rational beings who make choices based on their self-interests. 

According to the classical school, crime is seen as a result of individuals’ free will and rational decision-making, and it can be deterred through the fear of punishment.

Key Concepts

Rationality: The classical school believes that individuals are rational beings who make choices based on their self-interests. They weigh the benefits and costs of committing a crime before making a decision.

Hedonism: The classical school assumes that individuals are motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. Therefore, they commit crimes when they perceive the benefits of the crime to outweigh the costs.

Punishment: The classical school emphasises the importance of punishment as a deterrent to crime. It argues that the certainty, severity, and swiftness of punishment can deter individuals from committing crimes.

Relevant Provisions

Indian Penal Code (IPC): The IPC, which is the main criminal law statute in India, reflects the classical school’s principles of deterrence through punishment. It prescribes specific punishments for various crimes, with the aim of deterring individuals from committing those crimes.

Contribution

The classical school of criminology has influenced the development of criminal law and the criminal justice system in India. The principles of deterrence through punishment are reflected in the Indian Penal Code, which serves as the basis for the criminal justice system in the country.

Neo-Classical School

The Neo-Classical School of Criminology seeks to integrate the concepts of free will and determinism, acknowledging that while individuals have the capacity for free will, they are also influenced by various factors beyond their control. The Neo-Classical School emphasises the need for a balanced and holistic approach to understanding crime and criminal behaviour, taking into consideration both individual agency and social context.

Key Concepts

Integrative Approach: The Neo-Classical School advocates for an integrative approach that combines the concepts of free will and determinism. It acknowledges that individuals have the capacity for free will, but they are also influenced by various biological, psychological, and social factors that may limit their choices.

Mitigating Circumstances: The Neo-Classical School recognises the importance of considering mitigating circumstances, such as mental capacity, duress, provocation, and other factors that may affect an individual’s culpability for a crime.

Relevant Provisions

The Neo-Classical School has influenced the development of sentencing guidelines in some jurisdictions, which take into consideration both the severity of the offence and the individual circumstances of the offender, such as their criminal history, motivation, and potential for rehabilitation.

Contribution

The Neo-Classical School of Criminology has contributed to the recognition of the complex interplay between individual agency and social context in shaping criminal behaviour. It promotes a balanced and holistic approach that considers both free will and determinism, and advocates for the consideration of mitigating circumstances in the criminal justice system. 

However, the Neo-Classical School has also been criticised for its potential for subjectivity and inconsistency in determining mitigating circumstances and evaluating an individual’s culpability for a crime.

Positivist School of Criminology

The positivist school of criminology emerged in the 19th century as a response to the limitations of the classical school’s rational choice theory. The positivist school argues that individuals are not always rational and that various factors, such as biological, psychological, and social factors, can influence their behaviour, including criminal behaviour. 

According to the positivist school, crime is a result of internal and external factors, and it can be better understood and managed through scientific methods.

Key Concepts

Determinism: The positivist school rejects the idea of free will and argues that individual’s behaviour, including criminal behaviour, is determined by various factors, such as their biological makeup, psychological traits, and social environment.

Scientific Methods: The positivist school advocates for the use of scientific methods, such as empirical research and data analysis, to study crime and criminal behaviour. It emphasises the importance of evidence-based approaches in understanding and managing crime.

Rehabilitation: The positivist school believes that individuals who engage in criminal behaviour can be rehabilitated through treatment and intervention programs. It focuses on addressing the underlying causes of criminal behaviour rather than punishing offenders.

Relevant Provisions

Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015: This legislation, which deals with juvenile offenders, reflects the positivist school’s emphasis on rehabilitation and reformation rather than punishment. It provides for various measures, such as counselling, education, and vocational training, for the rehabilitation of juvenile offenders.

Contribution

The positivist school of criminology has contributed to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour in India by highlighting the importance of scientific methods and evidence-based approaches. It has influenced the development of policies and programs aimed at rehabilitating offenders and addressing the underlying causes of crime, particularly in the context of juvenile justice.

Sociological School of Criminology

The sociological school of criminology focuses on the social and structural factors that contribute to crime and criminal behaviour. It examines how social institutions, such as family, education, and the economy, influence individuals’ behaviour and their likelihood of engaging in criminal activities. 

The sociological school argues that crime is a result of social inequalities, social disorganisation, and the breakdown of social bonds.

Key Concepts

Social Structure: The sociological school emphasises the role of social structure, including social class, poverty, and inequality, in shaping individuals’ behaviour and their propensity to commit crimes. It highlights how social inequalities and structural factors can contribute to crime and criminal behaviour.

Social Disorganisation: The sociological school examines how the breakdown of social institutions and social disorganisation in communities can contribute to crime. It focuses on how factors such as neighbourhood characteristics, community cohesion, and social control can influence crime rates.

Social Bonds: The sociological school emphasises the importance of social bonds, such as family, school, and community, in preventing crime. It argues that individuals with strong social bonds are less likely to engage in criminal activities.

Relevant Provisions

Prevention of Atrocities (Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes) Act, 1989: This legislation, which is aimed at protecting marginalised communities from discrimination and violence, reflects the sociological school’s emphasis on addressing social inequalities and structural factors that contribute to crime. It provides for special provisions for the prevention and punishment of offences against individuals belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Contribution

The sociological school of criminology has contributed to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour in India by highlighting the role of social structure and social factors in shaping individuals’ behaviour. It has influenced the development of policies and programs aimed at addressing social inequalities, promoting social cohesion, and preventing crime.

Psychological School of Criminology

The psychological school of criminology focuses on the psychological factors that contribute to crime and criminal behaviour. It examines how individual traits, personality disorders, and mental health issues can influence individuals’ behaviour and their likelihood of engaging in criminal activities. The psychological school argues that crime is a result of psychological factors, such as personality disorders, cognitive processes, and emotional disturbances.

Key Concepts

Individual Traits: The psychological school emphasises the role of individual traits, such as impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and empathy, in shaping individuals’ behaviour and their propensity to commit crimes. It highlights how personality characteristics can influence criminal behaviour.

Cognitive Processes: The psychological school examines how cognitive processes, such as decision-making, moral reasoning, and problem-solving, can influence individuals’ behaviour and their likelihood of engaging in criminal activities. It focuses on how cognitive factors can affect the way individuals perceive and respond to the social environment.

Mental Health Issues: The psychological school recognises the role of mental health issues, such as personality disorders, substance abuse, and psychopathy, in contributing to criminal behaviour. It highlights how mental health issues can affect individuals’ behaviour and decision-making processes.

Relevant Provisions

Mental Healthcare Act, 2017: This legislation, which is aimed at protecting the rights of individuals with mental illness, reflects the psychological school’s emphasis on addressing mental health issues in the context of crime and criminal justice.

It provides for the rights and care of individuals with mental illness, including provisions for their treatment, rehabilitation, and protection from abuse and discrimination. It also recognises the importance of mental health assessments and interventions in the criminal justice system.

Contribution

The psychological school of criminology has contributed to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour in India by highlighting the role of psychological factors in shaping individuals’ behaviour. 

It has influenced the development of policies and programs aimed at addressing mental health issues, promoting mental health assessments in the criminal justice system, and providing appropriate care and rehabilitation for individuals with mental illness who are involved in the criminal justice system.

Economic School of Criminology

The economic school of criminology focuses on the economic factors contributing to crime and criminal behaviour. It examines how economic disparities, poverty, unemployment, and lack of opportunities can influence individuals’ behaviour and their likelihood of engaging in criminal activities. The economic school argues that crime is a result of economic factors, such as economic inequality, deprivation, and lack of access to resources.

Key Concepts

Economic Disparities: The economic school emphasises the role of economic disparities and inequalities in shaping individuals’ behaviour and their propensity to commit crimes. It highlights how economic inequality can contribute to crime by creating a sense of deprivation, frustration, and lack of opportunities.

Poverty and Unemployment: The economic school examines how poverty and unemployment can contribute to crime by creating economic hardships and a lack of legitimate means of livelihood. It focuses on how individuals may turn to criminal activities as a means of survival or to fulfil their economic needs.

Lack of Opportunities: The economic school recognises the importance of access to resources and opportunities in influencing individuals’ behaviour. It highlights how a lack of access to education, employment, and social resources can contribute to crime by limiting individuals’ choices and opportunities in life.

Relevant Provisions

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005: This legislation, which is aimed at providing employment opportunities and improving livelihoods in rural areas, reflects the economic school’s emphasis on addressing poverty and unemployment as factors contributing to crime. It provides for guaranteed employment and wage opportunities for rural households, aiming to reduce economic disparities and create legitimate means of livelihood.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) provisions under the Companies Act, 2013: These provisions require certain companies to contribute towards social and economic development activities, reflecting the economic school’s emphasis on addressing economic inequalities and lack of opportunities. It encourages companies to engage in socially responsible practices, such as poverty alleviation, education, and employment generation.

Contribution

The economic school of criminology has contributed to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour in India by highlighting the role of economic factors in shaping individuals’ behaviour. It has influenced the development of policies and programs aimed at addressing economic disparities, promoting employment opportunities, and reducing poverty as a means of crime prevention.

Critical Criminology

There is one of the schools of criminology that examines crime and criminal justice from a critical perspective, focusing on the social, economic, and political inequalities that contribute to crime and criminal behaviour. This is the Critical Criminology. It challenges the traditional theories of criminology and argues that crime is a result of structural inequalities, power imbalances, and social injustices.

Key Concepts

Structural Inequalities: Critical criminology emphasises the role of structural inequalities, such as class, race, gender, and ethnicity, in shaping individuals’ behaviour and their propensity to commit crimes. It highlights how unequal social, economic, and political systems can contribute to crime and criminal behaviour.

Power Imbalances: Critical criminology examines how power imbalances and social injustices can influence crime and criminal justice. It focuses on how individuals with power and privilege can perpetrate crimes and escape accountability, while those who are marginalised and disadvantaged may be more likely to be targeted by the criminal justice system.

Social Justice: Critical criminology promotes the concept of social justice and advocates for policies and practices that address social inequalities and promote equity and fairness. It emphasises the need to tackle root causes of crime, such as poverty, discrimination, and oppression, to create a just and inclusive society.

Relevant Provisions

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: This legislation reflects the critical criminology perspective by addressing social inequalities based on caste and tribe, and providing for special provisions for the protection of marginalised communities from atrocities and discrimination.

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: This legislation recognises the power imbalances within the domestic sphere and provides for measures to protect women from domestic violence, reflecting the critical criminology perspective on gender-based violence and inequality.

Right to Education Act, 2009: This legislation emphasises the importance of education as a means of addressing social inequalities and promoting social justice. It provides for free and compulsory education for children, with a focus on inclusivity and ensuring equal opportunities for all.

Contribution

Critical criminology has contributed to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour in India by highlighting the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to crime and criminal justice disparities. It has influenced the development of policies and programs aimed at addressing structural inequalities, promoting social justice, and advocating for the rights of marginalised and disadvantaged communities.

Conclusion

The schools of criminology in India provide diverse perspectives for understanding crime and criminal behaviour. Each school offers unique insights into the causes and consequences of crime and has influenced the development of policies and programs aimed at crime prevention, criminal justice reform, and promoting social justice. 

By considering the various schools of criminology, policymakers, researchers, and practitioners can have a more comprehensive understanding of crime and develop effective strategies for addressing it. It is crucial to continue evolving and incorporating interdisciplinary approaches to criminology to better understand the complex dynamics of crime and contribute to evidence-based policies and practices in India.