Rights of Prisoners in India

The Constitution of India ensures that every person is treated equally under the law or provided with equal legal protection while in India. This also applies to prisoners, who are guaranteed certain rights and should be treated as individuals. Indian courts, including the Supreme Court, acknowledge the fundamental rights of prisoners in India.

The Supreme Court has emphasised that regardless of the circumstances that led a person to commit a crime, prisoners must be treated with respect and provided with basic human rights, dignity and compassion.

Mahatma Gandhi once said, “Crime is the result of a troubled mind and prisons should provide an environment for treatment and care.”

In the case of State of A.P. Vs. Challa Ramkrishna Reddy & Ors. (2000) 5 SCC 712, the Supreme Court ruled that prisoners retain all their fundamental rights unless their liberty has been constitutionally restricted.

Who is a Prisoner?

Now, let’s define who a prisoner is according to the Model Prison Manual 2016. A prisoner is anyone who is confined in a prison under the authority of a competent body. In simpler terms, a prisoner is a person held in jail or prison because they have committed an act prohibited by the law of the country.

In India, the terms “prison” and “jail” are used interchangeably and both convicted individuals and those awaiting trial are commonly referred to as prisoners.

Rights of Prisoners in India under the Prisons Act, 1894

The Prisons Act of 1894 marked the first legal framework for regulating prisons in India. This act outlines provisions aimed at ensuring the welfare and protection of prisoners, including both convicts and undertrials. Here are some of the key rights granted to prisoners under this act:

Right to Adequate Accommodation (Section 4)

Prisoners have the right to receive accommodation that complies with the standards set forth in the Prisons Act of 1894. The Model Prison Manual of 2016 also emphasises that living conditions in every prison should uphold human dignity, covering aspects such as accommodation, hygiene, sanitation, food, clothing and medical facilities.

Right to Shelter and Safe Custody for Excess Prisoners (Section 7)

If any prison becomes overcrowded and it’s impractical to transfer the excess number of prisoners to other facilities, temporary prisons should be arranged to provide shelter and safe custody. This is especially crucial during outbreaks of epidemic diseases within a prison.

Examination of Prisoners by Qualified Medical Officers (Sections 24 and 26)

• Every prisoner is entitled to be examined by a qualified Medical Officer. The Medical Officer should record the prisoner’s health status, any wounds or marks on their body, their fitness for specific labour (if sentenced to rigorous imprisonment) and any relevant observations. These records are maintained in a book kept by the Jailer (Section 24(2)).

• Female prisoners have the right to be examined by a lady matron, as per the special or general orders of the Medical Officer (Section 24(3)).

• Prisoners cannot be transferred from one prison to another unless the Medical Officer certifies that they are free from any illness that would make the transfer unsafe (Section 26(2)).

• Prisoners cannot be discharged from prison against their will until the Medical Officer deems such a discharge to be safe (Section 26(3)).

Separation of Prisoners (Section 27)

In a prison housing both female and male prisoners, females must be placed in separate buildings or distinct sections of the same building. This arrangement is designed to prevent them from seeing, conversing with or having any interaction with male prisoners.

Prisons detaining male prisoners under the age of twenty-one should have measures in place to separate them entirely from other prisoners, particularly distinguishing those who have reached puberty from those who have not.

Undertrial prisoners should be kept separate from convicted criminal prisoners (convicts).

Civil prisoners should be kept apart from criminal prisoners.

Maintenance of Prisoners from Private Sources (Section 31)

Civil prisoners and undertrial criminal prisoners have the right to sustain themselves by purchasing or receiving food, clothing, bedding and other necessities from private sources during appropriate hours. This is subject to examination and rules approved by the Inspector General.

Solitary Confinement (Section 29)

Solitary confinement cells must be equipped to enable prisoners to communicate with a prison officer at any time. Prisoners in solitary confinement for more than twenty-four hours, whether as a punishment or otherwise, must be visited by the Medical Officer or Medical Subordinate at least once a day.

Supply of Clothing and Bedding to Civil Prisoners and Undertrials (Section 33(1))

Every civil prisoner and under-trial who cannot provide themselves with sufficient clothing and bedding shall receive necessary clothing and bedding from the Superintendent.

Employment of Criminal Prisoners (Section 35)

Prisoners sentenced to rigorous imprisonment may engage in manual labour for more than nine hours in emergencies with written approval from the Superintendent.

The Medical Officer should assess prisoners while they work, record their respective weights on each prisoner’s history ticket and ensure they have adequate rest.

If the Medical Officer believes a prisoner’s health is deteriorating due to a specific job, that prisoner should be reassigned to a more suitable task as determined by the Medical Officer.

Care for Ill Prisoners (Section 37)

• Prisoners who are unwell or show signs of physical or mental health issues and wish to consult the Medical Subordinate (doctor) must be promptly reported by the overseeing officer to the Jailer.
• The Jailer, without delay, shall inform the Medical Subordinate about prisoners in need of medical attention or who express a desire to see the doctor. They must also follow any written instructions provided by the Medical Officer or Medical Subordinate concerning changes in the discipline or treatment of such prisoners.

Provision of Hospitals (Section 39)

Each prison must have a hospital or an appropriate facility for the care of sick prisoners.

Visits for Civil and Undertrial Prisoners (Section 40)

Both convicts and undertrial prisoners have the right to meet with individuals they wish to communicate with while in prison, during proper times and under reasonable restrictions.

Undertrial prisoners may be allowed to meet their duly qualified legal advisors in private, without the presence of any other individuals, in the interests of justice.

Rights of Prisoners in India Identified by the All India Committee on Jail Reforms, 1980

The Mulla Committee highlighted several important rights for prisoners, emphasising their dignity and humane treatment within the prison system. Here are the key rights:

Right to Human Dignity

• The right to be treated as a human being and as a person, as mandated by the Supreme Court of India, which has explicitly stated that prisoners should not be treated as non-persons.
• The right to bodily integrity, safeguarding against the use of physical abuse or violence, whether by custodial staff or fellow prisoners.
• The right to mental integrity, protecting against aggression, whether from staff or other inmates.
• The right to retain fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution, except as permitted by law that prescribes conditions of confinement.

Right to Basic Minimum Needs

The right to have basic needs fulfilled, including adequate nutrition, health care, access to clean drinking water, clean and hygienic living conditions, sanitation, personal hygiene, sufficient clothing, bedding and other essential items.

Right to Communication

• The right to maintain communication with the outside world.
• The right to have periodic interviews.
• The right to receive information about the outside world through various communication media.

Right of Access to Law

• The right to effective access to information and all legal provisions that regulate conditions of detention.
• The right to consult or be represented by a legal practitioner of the prisoner’s choice.
• The right to access agencies such as State Legal Aid Boards or similar organisations providing legal services.
• The right to be informed upon admission about legal rights related to appeal, revision and review, both for conviction and sentencing.
• The right to receive all necessary court documents for the purpose of filing an appeal, revision or sentence review.
• The right to present individual complaints and grievances effectively to the relevant authorities during imprisonment.
• The right to communicate with the prison administration, the appropriate government and judicial authorities for addressing violations of prisoners’ rights and grievances.

Right to Meaningful and Gainful Employment

The right to engage in meaningful and gainful employment.

Note 1: Prisoners should not be subjected to forced labour like “begar” or similar exploitative forms, as it violates the fundamental right against exploitation under Article 23 of the Constitution.

Note 2: Undertrial prisoners who voluntarily engage in work should be provided suitable tasks and they should receive wages as per the rules.

Note 3: Prisoners should not be assigned domestic work with prison officials, as it is not considered meaningful or gainful employment, even if some compensation is offered.

Note 4: Prisoners should not be engaged in work under the management, control, supervision or direction of private entrepreneurs seeking profit for their organisation, except in open prisons and camps.

The right to receive wages for the work performed in prison.

Right to be Released on the Due Date

The rights of the prisoners also involve the right to be released before due date in certain circumstances.

Rights of the Prisoners in India under the Constitution

The Constitution of India safeguards the fundamental rights of all prisoners. The Hon’ble Supreme Court, in the case of State of A.P. Vs. Challa Ramkrishna Reddy & Ors. (2000) 5 SCC 712, affirmed that a prisoner, whether a convict or an undertrial, does not lose their status as a human being and retains the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India, including the right to life.

Articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Indian Constitution bestow fundamental rights on every Indian citizen and these rights extend to prisoners as well. The Hon’ble Supreme Court, in the case of T.V. Vatheeswaran v. State of Tamil Nadu (1983) 2 SCC 68, emphasised that fundamental rights under Articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution are applicable to both prisoners and those who are not incarcerated.

Article 14 of the Constitution

Prisoners are entitled to basic human rights, including access to nutritious food, just like any other citizen. Article 14 of the Constitution guarantees equality before the law and the equal protection of the law, ensuring that all individuals should be treated equally.

Article 19 of the Constitution

Article 19 of the Constitution provides various freedoms for citizens, including:

• Freedom of speech and expression
• The right to assemble peaceably and without arms
• The right to form associations or unions
• The right to move freely throughout the territory of India
• The right to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India
• The right to practice any profession or carry on any occupation, trade or business

However, prisoners can exercise only two of these freedoms:

• The right to freedom of speech and expression (Article 19(1)(a))
• The right to become a member of an association (Article 19(1)(c)).
• These rights ensure that prisoners are not deprived of their basic freedoms and legal protections, even while serving their sentences.

Article 21 of the Constitution

Article 21 of the Indian Constitution is a fundamental right that plays a pivotal role in protecting individual rights. It states that “no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law.” This article encompasses two fundamental aspects of rights:

• Right to Life: Article 21 guarantees every person’s right to life, which is a fundamental and inherent human right. It protects individuals from arbitrary actions or decisions that could result in the loss of life. This right implies not only the right to physical existence but also the right to live with human dignity. It restricts the state’s power to take life except in accordance with a lawful and just process.

• Right to Personal Liberty: Article 21 also safeguards an individual’s right to personal liberty. It ensures that a person’s freedom and physical autonomy cannot be arbitrarily curtailed by the state or any other authority. This includes protection against unlawful arrest, detention or imprisonment. Personal liberty is a fundamental aspect of a person’s freedom and dignity and Article 21 ensures its preservation.

In summary, Article 21 of the Indian Constitution is a critical provision that safeguards the right to life and personal liberty, serving as a crucial protection against arbitrary actions by the state or other entities. It reinforces the principles of justice, fairness and human dignity in the legal system.

Other Rights of Prisoners in India

Prisoners have additional rights that aim to ensure their humane treatment and access to legal aid. Here are some of the key rights of prisoners in India:

Right to Live in Humane and Good Conditions

In the case of Upendra Baxi v. State of U.P., (1983) 2 SCC 308, the Supreme Court issued various directions to guarantee that inmates in the protective Home at Agra do not live in inhumane and degrading conditions. This upholds the right to live with dignity as enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution.

Right to Free Legal Aid

Anyone who is arrested has the right to consult a lawyer, which is a constitutional guarantee and a fundamental right.

In the case of M.H. Wadanrao Haskot Vs. State of Maharashtra, (1978) 3 SCC 544, the Supreme Court established that the right to legal aid is an integral part of a fair procedure.

Article 22(1) of the Indian Constitution ensures the right to be defended by a legal practitioner of one’s choice.

Article 39A of the Constitution further provides for legal aid to the poor and weaker sections of society, including accused persons.

The presence of a lawyer at the stage of arrest can have a significant impact on how the accused is treated in police custody, reducing the likelihood of mistreatment, and coercion and ensuring the respect of the accused’s rights.

The Legal Services Authority Act (LSAA), 1987, also stipulates that any person in ‘custody’ is entitled to legal aid and the State may cover the cost if the individual is willing to accept it.

In Sheela Barse Vs. State of Maharashtra, the Supreme Court directed that when a person is arrested, the police must immediately inform the nearest Legal Aid Committee and take steps to provide legal assistance.

The presence of a lawyer at the arrest stage can make a significant difference in protecting the rights and well-being of the accused.

Right to Speedy Trial

The right to a speedy trial is a fundamental right of prisoners in India enshrined in Article 21. This right applies to both the innocent and those facing charges.

The Constitution mandates a just, fair and reasonable trial procedure.

In the case of Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar, the Supreme Court highlighted the shocking situation where a significant number of individuals, including children, were incarcerated for extended periods while awaiting trial. The court expressed concern about the delay in trial, especially for those who could not afford bail.

The Supreme Court held that a procedure that keeps a large number of people behind bars without trial for an extended period cannot be considered reasonable, just or fair and it does not conform to the requirements of Article 21.

Right Against Custodial Violence and Death in Police Lock-ups or Encounters

Rights of prisoners in India to be protected against custodial violence, which can occur in police custody or judicial custody.

Custodial violence includes physical torture, sexual harassment or custodial deaths. No one should be subjected to torture, cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment or punishment.

In the case of Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration, a convict, Sunil Batra, reported violence in prison to the Supreme Court. The court held that prisoners should be protected from corporal punishment and violence.

In the case of State of Uttar Pradesh v. Ram Sagar Yadav and Ors, a farmer who refused to pay a bribe to a local police constable died under suspicious circumstances within six hours of detention. The Supreme Court convicted the accused individuals involved in the case.

Right Against Solitary Confinement, Handcuffing and Bar Fetters

Solitary confinement refers to the complete isolation of a prisoner, segregating them from all human contact, with limited access to the open air and this can only be at the discretion of jail authorities. The maximum duration for solitary confinement is three months.

Arrested persons or under-trial prisoners should not be subjected to handcuffing in the absence of justifying circumstances.

In the case of Prem Shankar Shukla vs. Delhi Administration, the Supreme Court held that handcuffing is inhumane and harsh. It is essential to prevent the escape of an under-trial, but binding a person hand and foot, fettering their limbs and forcing them to stand in courts for hours is considered equivalent to torture and humiliation. As a general rule, handcuffs or other fetters should not be used on under-trial prisoners unless absolutely necessary.

Right to Meet Friends and Consult a Lawyer

In the case of Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration, the Supreme Court recognised the right of prisoners in India to be visited by friends and relatives, subject to search, discipline and security criteria. Such visits provide comfort to inmates in isolation.

Prisoners have the right to meet and consult with their lawyers.

Right to Information for Friends, Relatives or Nominated Persons

An arrested person has the right to have someone informed about their arrest and place of detention. This right is expressly provided in Section 50A of the Criminal Procedure Code.

The Supreme Court has held that these rights are integral to Articles 21 and 22(1) of the Constitution and must be recognised and protected.

Right to Reasonable Wages in Prison

Section 53 of the Indian Penal Code allows prisoners sentenced to rigorous imprisonment to be assigned work; however, it does not mandate that such work must be unpaid.

If a person, whether free or a prisoner, provides labour or services for remuneration that is less than the minimum wage, the work falls within the scope of “forced labour” under Article 23 of the Constitution.

In the case of People’s Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India, the Supreme Court noted that labour or services provided for remuneration below the minimum wage constitutes forced labour. Such individuals can seek the enforcement of their fundamental rights by asking the Court to direct the payment of the minimum wage.

Right to Expression

The right to personal liberty includes the right to write a book and get it published.

The denial of this right without the authority of law violates Article 21 of the Constitution.

Right to Be Informed About Legal Rights

Prisoners have the right to be informed upon admission about their legal rights to appeal, revision or review in cases of conviction or sentence.

They also have the right to receive all court documents necessary for initiating an appeal, revision or review of their sentence or conviction.

Right to Communication

Prisoners have the right to communicate with the outside world.

They have the right to periodic interviews or meetings with their lawyers to ensure efficient legal representation.

They are entitled to receive information about the outside world through communication media.

Right to Be Examined by Mental Health Professionals

The Supreme Court has ruled that death row inmates are entitled to be interviewed by mental healthcare professionals.

The Model Prison Manual, 2016 mandates that prisoners with mental health conditions be admitted to mental health institutions and counsellors should be made available to examine the prisoners.

Right Against Double Jeopardy or Punishment

Article 20(2) of the Constitution of India guarantees that no person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once.

Right to Receive Books and Magazines Inside the Jail

Prisoners have the right to receive books and magazines while in jail unless a particular book is determined to be unsuitable by the jail authority.

Rights of the Prisoners under the Criminal Procedure Code (Cr.P.C)

Right of the Prisoner to Be Informed of Arrest and Bail (Section 50)

Every arrested person has the right to be informed of the grounds for their arrest and their right to seek bail.

Police officers or other persons arresting someone without a warrant must immediately communicate to the arrested person the full particulars of the offence for which they are being arrested or the other grounds for the arrest.

Right of the Prisoner to Be Defended by a Lawyer (Section 303 and Section 304)

Section 303 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) empowers prisoners to be defended by a lawyer of their choice.

Section 304 of the CrPC provides that in certain cases, legal aid is to be provided at the state’s expense.

Right to Speedy Trial (Section 309(1))

Section 309(1) of the CrPC provides that in every inquiry or trial, the proceedings shall be held as expeditiously as possible.

Right to Medical Examination (Section 54)

Section 54 of the CrPC provides for the examination of the body of an arrested person by a registered medical practitioner at the request of the arrested person in case of torture and maltreatment in lockups.

Right to Be Present Before the Magistrate Without Delay (Sections 57 and 76)

It is the right of the prisoner to be physically produced before the court at the time of hearing their case without procedural delay.

Right to Be Present During Trial (Section 273)

Section 273 of the CrPC provides that all evidence and statements must be recorded in the presence of the accused or their lawyer.

Right to Be Released on Probation of Good Conduct on or After Admonition (Section 360)

The court may direct the release of the prisoner on probation after observing their good behaviour in certain cases.

This includes cases where a person above 21 years of age is convicted of an offence punishable with a fine or imprisonment for up to 7 years or when any person under 21 years of age or any woman is convicted of an offence not punishable with death or life imprisonment and no previous conviction is proved against the offender.

Such release is subject to the prisoner entering into a bond to appear and receive a sentence when called upon during a specified period, keeping the peace and maintaining good behaviour.

Right to Be Released on Bail Even If the Prisoner Does Not Have Means (Section 436 CrPC)

Section 436 of the CrPC mandates the release of an indigent or poor person on bail without the requirement of surety.

It allows the person to execute a bond to appear before the court without asking for any surety.

The court shall consider any person unable to provide bail within seven days from the date of their arrest as indigent or poor.

The principle is that bail, rather than jail, is the rule and depriving a person of liberty is the last resort.

Conclusion

The rights of prisoners in India are enshrined in both the Constitution and the Code of Criminal Procedure. These rights include the right to be treated with dignity, access to legal representation, a speedy trial, medical examination to prevent torture, and the right to be present during trial proceedings.

Additionally, prisoners have the right to be informed about the grounds of their arrest, access to bail, and to be released on probation for good conduct. The principle of bail over jail is emphasised, especially for indigent or poor prisoners. These rights of prisoners safeguard the fundamental principles of justice, fairness, and human rights, ensuring that even individuals in custody are treated with respect and due process under the law.